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Malaysia & Southeast Asia

DOA Sarawak, MARDI, regional studies. 27 practices across 6 crops.

Summary of cited sources. TERAknow summarises published guidance from the sources linked on each page. Recommendations are general, not guaranteed: results depend on your soil, climate and variety, so confirm with local extension staff or an agronomist before acting.

Regional notes

What sources say about this region

  • Banana: Indonesia & Southeast Asia

    Two diseases set the rules for banana in Indonesia. Fusarium wilt has been in Java since the 1910s, and TR4 is now the main race in surveys, affecting Barangan, Raja and Ambon Hijau. Blood disease (Ralstonia syzygii subsp. celebesensis) started in South Sulawesi and is now found from Sumatra to Papua. It hits Kepok (Saba type, ABB) hardest, while Raja, Susu and Mas are less susceptible and well-monitored Cavendish plantations suffer less. Budless Kepok types (Kepok Tanjung) are being distributed because they give insects no male flower to infect. Ministry of Agriculture (Balitbu Tropika) technical guides on these diseases were not fetched; current guidance here comes through TFNet and BRIN presentations and Pacific Pests, Pathogens and Weeds.

  • Chili: Malaysia (Sarawak)

    Raised beds with silver plastic mulch, dolomite liming and frequent side dressing.

  • Oil palm: Malaysia

    MPOB published a standard operating procedure for basal stem rot in 2025. Its content was not reviewed here. FELCRA recommends legume covers and EFB mulch.

  • Coffee: Philippines

    The Department of Agriculture technoguide prefers side pruning over full stumping for rejuvenation and dries cherries to 12 to 14% moisture.

  • Durian: Malaysia

    Growers mostly collect naturally fallen fruit. Sarawak recommends 11 x 11 m spacing, mixed clones with D99 as pollinator, and chicken manure with compound fertilizer.

  • Durian: Thailand and Vietnam

    Fruit is mostly cut at maturity for export. ACIAR-backed work promoted mounds, mulch and phosphonate trunk injection against Phytophthora.

  • Pineapple: Malaysia (Johor peat)

    Pineapple has long been the main crop on Peninsular Malaysian peat, valued for its tolerance of acidity and low fertility. Zinc and copper deficiencies are common.

Practices

Practices tagged Malaysia & Southeast Asia

Banana · Pisang

Full banana guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Soil biology
    • Stage: Planting

    Rotate out of banana on Fusarium-affected land

    Fusarium survives in the soil, so replanting banana straight after banana keeps the disease going. Rotation is one of the few field measures that showed benefit in Indonesia.

    Technical detail
    • Indonesian work found that rotation with pineapple and cassava can reduce Fusarium wilt incidence.
    • The same report notes that beneficial microbes such as Trichoderma, Bacillus and Pseudomonas had not yet shown positive results against Fusarium wilt in Indonesian trials. Treat biological products as unproven for this disease.
    • Paddy rice rotation was raised as a possible suppressive option for Southeast Asia, but it was still a research question.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Southeast Asia
    Confidence
    Emerging evidence: early or small-scale evidence
    Source
    Crop
    Banana guide

Chili · Cabai

Full chili guide
    • Core practice
    • Soil & nutrition
    • Stage: Field establishment

    Plant on raised beds and correct acidity

    Chili does not tolerate flooding. Use raised beds on land that drains, and lime acidic soils before transplanting.

    Technical detail
    • Sarawak: beds 15 to 30 cm high, 1.0 to 1.2 m wide, 50 to 100 cm apart; dolomite at 100 to 200 g/m².
    • Balitsa (lowland system): beds 1.5 to 1.75 m wide with drains 0.5 to 0.6 m deep; lime 2 to 4 weeks before planting if pH is below 5.6.
    • Flat planting is acceptable only where the land never waterlogs.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Chili guide
    • Conventional
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Field establishment

    Silver plastic mulch on beds

    Silver reflective plastic mulch suppresses weeds and reduces aphids, which spread viruses.

    Technical detail
    • Lay the mulch on the formed bed before transplanting and punch planting holes at the chosen spacing.
    • Plastic must be collected and removed after the crop.
    Regions
    Malaysia · Widely used in Southeast Asia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Source
    Crop
    Chili guide
    • Conventional
    • Soil & nutrition
    • Stage: Field establishment

    Basal manure plus regular side dressing

    Work in decomposed manure and a compound fertilizer before transplanting, then feed little and often while the crop is picking.

    Technical detail
    • Sarawak: 1 to 2 kg/m² well-decomposed chicken manure plus 30 g/m² NPK compound 1 to 2 weeks before transplanting; side dress 15 to 30 g per plant every 1 to 2 weeks until the crop ends.
    • Balitsa: TSP 150 to 200 kg/ha basal; urea, ZA and KCl split into thirds at 4, 7 and 10 weeks after planting.
    • Use fresh manure only after composting; adjust rates to a soil test.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Chili guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Vegetative growth

    Stake early and prune low branches

    Install stakes about one month after transplanting to carry the fruit load and stop plants lodging.

    Technical detail
    • Balitsa prunes side shoots up to 25 cm above the soil at about two months, which improves airflow near the ground.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Sources
    Crop
    Chili guide
    • Core practice
    • Pests & disease
    • Stage: Vegetative growth

    Monitor with traps before spraying

    Sticky traps show when thrips and whiteflies build up, and methyl eugenol traps catch male fruit flies. Spray only registered products, and only when monitoring shows a need.

    Technical detail
    • Balitsa: 40 blue, white or yellow sticky traps per hectare, re-oiled weekly.
    • Methyl eugenol traps: 40 per hectare from two weeks after planting, refreshed every two weeks.
    • Main pests: thrips, aphids, mites, fruit borers, fruit flies and whiteflies.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Chili guide
    • Core practice
    • Harvest
    • Stage: Harvest

    Pick often, in cool hours, with the stalk on

    Harvest begins about 70 to 75 days after transplanting in the lowlands and continues every 3 to 4 days.

    Technical detail
    • Pick in the morning or late afternoon using secateurs, keeping the stalk on the fruit.
    • Fresh-market fruit should be mature but firm.
    • Remove rotten fruit from the field at each picking rather than dropping it on the bed.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Chili guide

Oil palm · Kelapa sawit

Full oil palm guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Pests & disease
    • Stage: Mature palms

    Mound infected palms with Trichoderma and trench off hotspots

    No method fully cures basal stem rot. Digging out rotten tissue and mounding soil with Trichoderma can extend the productive life of an infected palm, and a trench can slow spread to neighbours.

    Technical detail
    • PPKS: digging and mounding with Trichoderma extended the life of infected palms up to 3 years after treatment.
    • A 4 m x 4 m isolation trench prevented spread to neighbouring palms for up to 2 years in the same trials.
    • A 2022 review found Trichoderma the most studied biocontrol agent, but concluded no current method controls Ganoderma effectively. Treat it as slowing the disease, not curing it.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Sources
    Crop
    Oil palm guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Soil biology
    • Stage: Replanting & land preparation

    Sow a legume cover crop at land preparation

    Legume covers reduce erosion, keep soil moist, limit loss of organic matter and attract natural enemies of pests. Sow once, after land clearing, avoiding very heavy rain or dry spells.

    Technical detail
    • Smallholder Oil Palm Handbook seed rates: Mucuna bracteata 200 to 300 g/ha; Pueraria phaseoloides 3 to 4 kg/ha; Calopogonium caeruleum 1 to 1.5 kg/ha. Most seed needs scarification (sandpaper or hot water).
    • The same guide supports establishment with soluble P (for example 500 kg/ha TSP) or reactive rock phosphate. These are rates from one guide; adjust to a soil test.
    • Slash inter-row vegetation at knee height about every six months.
    • TNAU also lists Pueraria, Calopogonium, Centrosema and Mucuna; FELCRA uses legume covers during the immature stage.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Oil palm guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Soil & nutrition
    • Stage: Mature palms

    Spread empty fruit bunches one layer thick

    Empty fruit bunches (EFB) from the mill are rich in potassium and add organic matter. In a 15-year Riau trial, topsoil organic carbon was higher under EFB than under fertiliser alone.

    Technical detail
    • Smallholder handbook: 30 to 40 t/ha can replace K, P, Mg and B fertiliser for about a year, but keep applying N. PPKS gives 35 to 40 t/ha for estates, 70 to 80 t/ha on sandy soils and as little as 10 t/ha for smallholders. Adjust to a soil test.
    • Lay EFB in a band beside the frond stack or in patches between palms, not in the weeded circle of mature palms.
    • Keep the layer one bunch thick and turn patches to check for rhinoceros beetle larvae.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Oil palm guide

Coffee · Kopi

Full coffee guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Site & shade establishment

    Match species to altitude and prepare holes early

    Arabica needs cool highlands and robusta suits the lowlands. Dig planting holes months ahead and fill them with manure or compost.

    Technical detail
    • Puslitkoka/ICRAF: arabica above 1,000 m (ideally 1,000 to 1,500 m), robusta 40 to 900 m, liberica 0 to 40 m. The Philippine technoguide gives arabica 900 to 1,800 m and robusta 600 to 1,200 m, so check local advice.
    • Holes 60 x 60 x 60 cm, dug 6 months before planting and filled with manure or compost.
    • Use contour terraces on slopes.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Philippines
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Coffee guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Site & shade establishment

    Plant shade trees a year before the coffee

    Shade moderates heat, and shade-tree litter adds nutrients and holds soil moisture. Both Indonesian and Philippine guides plant shade one year ahead.

    Technical detail
    • Puslitkoka/ICRAF: about 400 to 800 permanent shade trees per hectare, such as Leucaena, Gliricidia and Erythrina (dadap), planted north to south. Timber trees go on the edges.
    • ICRAF: avoid coconut and cacao (similar root depth) and banana (nematode host). Keep eucalyptus or casuarina more than 10 m away.
    • In the Sumberjaya (Lampung) study cited by ICRAF, coffee under Gliricidia and Erythrina generally did best from year 4.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Philippines
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Coffee guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Formation

    Train stems early and renew old wood

    Form a single or multi-stem frame before fruiting, then remove spent wood after each harvest. Old trees can be rejuvenated rather than replaced.

    Technical detail
    • Puslitkoka tops robusta at about 170 cm; the Philippine guide caps the main stem at about 1.6 m in year 3. Remove suckers and excess branches.
    • After harvest, cut dead, crossing and unproductive branches, especially those that have fruited 3 to 5 times.
    • For trees about 10 to 30 years old, the Philippine guide prefers side pruning over full stumping (about 30 cm above ground) because side pruning keeps part of the crop.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Philippines
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Coffee guide
    • Conventional
    • Soil & nutrition
    • Stage: Productive trees

    Fertilise twice a year, at the start and end of the rains

    Place fertiliser 30 to 50 cm from the trunk and cover it with soil. Prune shade trees first so the coffee can use the nutrients.

    Technical detail
    • Puslitkoka gives doses of urea, SP-36, KCl and dolomite that rise with tree age. For demanding varieties it suggests at least 0.5 kg chemical fertiliser plus 10 kg manure per tree. This is from one guide; adjust to a soil test.
    • Philippine guide: 75 g of 14-14-14 per tree at planting.
    • Add manure or compost alongside mineral fertiliser.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Philippines
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Coffee guide
    • Core practice
    • Harvest
    • Stage: Post-harvest

    Pick red cherries and dry off the ground

    Selective picking of ripe red cherries gives better quality. Dry quickly on raised racks, not on bare soil.

    Technical detail
    • Sort out green and black fruit after picking.
    • Philippine guide: start drying within 12 hours of harvest and sun-dry to 12 to 14% moisture.
    • Poorly dried beans let berry borers keep breeding in storage.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Philippines
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Coffee guide

Durian · Durian

Full durian guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Planting

    Plant on raised mounds with good drainage

    Phytophthora palmivora thrives in wet soil. Avoid low-lying land and plant on mounds so roots stay above the water table.

    Technical detail
    • ACIAR: keep the water table at least 80 cm down. Mounds 50 to 60 cm high in deltas such as the Mekong, and 30 to 40 cm elsewhere.
    • Avoid planting on old rubber, cocoa or pawpaw land, which can carry the pathogen (ACIAR).
    • TFNet: do not grow durian in low areas with a high water table.
    Regions
    Vietnam · Thailand · Malaysia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide
    • Core practice
    • Establishment
    • Stage: Planting

    Use labelled grafted plants and mix clones

    Grafted clones bear true to type. Planting more than one clone improves fruit set.

    Technical detail
    • Indonesian SPO: labelled grafted or budded plants 0.75 to 1.5 m tall, more than 6 months after budding. Holes 60 x 60 x 60 cm, or 100 x 100 x 100 cm in heavy soil. Keep the bud union above soil and shade for about 3 months.
    • Sarawak: plant a mix of clones with D99 as a pollinator. Listed clones include D24, D99, D123, D168 and local yellow types.
    • ACIAR: graft onto tolerant rootstock where known; resistance sources are not yet fully identified.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Soil biology
    • Stage: Canopy building

    Mulch the drip zone and use composted manure

    Organic mulch and well-fermented manure support soil life and root health. High inorganic nitrogen raises canker and root rot risk.

    Technical detail
    • ACIAR: mulch under the drip zone with straw and manure, but keep mulch off the trunk in the wet season.
    • Ferment green manure and chicken manure in planting holes for 8 to 10 weeks before planting; ACIAR mentions an EM starter culture.
    • TFNet adds lime and organic fertilizer to keep trees vigorous.
    Regions
    Vietnam · Thailand · Malaysia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide
    • Conventional
    • Soil & nutrition
    • Stage: Canopy building

    Raise fertilizer with tree age, in small frequent doses

    Young trees get small, frequent doses. Rates rise as the trunk and canopy grow, and manure is applied alongside.

    Technical detail
    • Sarawak schedule: at planting 0.2 kg rock phosphate, 0.1 kg dolomite and 5 to 10 kg chicken manure; then compound fertilizer rising from 15:15:15 to 12:12:17:2+TE, and 20 to 40 kg chicken manure per tree per year.
    • Indonesian SPO: apply in a ring trench under the canopy, with organic fertilizer nearer the trunk.
    • These are rates from single guides; adjust to a soil or leaf test.
    Regions
    Malaysia · Indonesia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Canopy building

    Prune for a clear trunk and an open canopy

    Removing low branches and opening the canopy improves airflow and keeps soil splash away from the tree.

    Technical detail
    • Indonesian SPO: start pruning at 1 year, keep the main trunk clear to 70 to 100 cm and form the canopy at 2 to 3 m.
    • ACIAR: remove branches within 80 to 100 cm of the ground and plant no more than 80 to 100 trees/ha.
    • Seal large cuts and disinfect tools between trees.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Vietnam · Thailand
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide
    • Core practice
    • Crop care
    • Stage: Flowering & pollination

    Support pollination at night

    Durian flowers open at night and are pollinated by night-flying animals and wind. Hand pollination can improve fruit set.

    Technical detail
    • Indonesian SPO: mix pollen with starch or flour at 3:7 and blow it onto flowers the same night. Store pollen at about 15°C if delayed.
    • Sarawak: a mixed planting of clones is needed to improve fruit set.
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia
    Confidence
    Medium confidence: one institutional guide
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide
    • Core practice
    • Pests & disease
    • Stage: Fruit growth

    Check trunks often and treat cankers early

    Patch canker shows as wet, dark bark lesions, often at the change from dry to wet season. Early action limits tree loss.

    Technical detail
    • Scrape lesions back to healthy wood and paint with a copper fungicide such as Bordeaux mixture (ACIAR) or a registered systemic product (Indonesian SPO, Sarawak).
    • Remove and burn badly infected or dead trees and lime the planting spot (TFNet).
    • Harvest fruit from the tree, not the ground, and bury or ferment infected fruit (ACIAR).
    Regions
    Indonesia · Malaysia · Thailand · Vietnam
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide
    • Conventional
    • Pests & disease
    • Stage: Fruit growth

    Phosphonate trunk injection for Phytophthora

    Trunk injection with neutralised potassium phosphonate is the main chemical tool tested in Southeast Asia.

    Technical detail
    • ACIAR: use phosphonate neutralised to pH 6.5 to 7.0. Mature trees received two or three injections a year during leaf flush, reduced to once a year as disease fell.
    • Inject in the morning and watch for bark splitting with high-pressure systems.
    • Use only products registered locally and follow the label.
    Regions
    Vietnam · Thailand · Australia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide
    • Biological & regenerative
    • Soil biology
    • Stage: Fruit growth

    Beneficial microbes against Phytophthora

    Trichoderma fungi and Bacillus bacteria have been reported to reduce disease incidence. Use them alongside drainage and sanitation, not instead of them.

    Technical detail
    • The TFNet report mentions observations rather than field trial rates. Local evidence is limited.
    Regions
    Malaysia · Widely applicable
    Confidence
    Emerging evidence: early or small-scale evidence
    Source
    Crop
    Durian guide
    • Core practice
    • Harvest
    • Stage: Harvest

    Choose fallen-fruit or cut harvest to suit the market

    Naturally fallen fruit has the best eating quality but keeps only a few days. Cutting mature fruit gives slower ripening for distant markets.

    Technical detail
    • TFNet: Malaysian growers mostly collect fallen fruit; Thai growers mostly cut at maturity. Fallen fruit keeps 2 to 3 days at 25 to 30°C.
    • Indonesian SPO: tie fruit to a branch about a month before maturity, cut at 80 to 85% maturity about 1.5 cm from the branch, and lower fruit on rope.
    • In a Thai 'Monthong' study, fruit cut at 120 days after anthesis ripened close to tree-ripe quality; fruit cut at 110 days was poorer.
    Regions
    Malaysia · Thailand · Indonesia
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Durian guide

Pineapple · Nanas

Full pineapple guide
    • Core practice
    • Soil & nutrition
    • Stage: Land & planting material

    Prepare peat without fire and drain it gently

    Burning and heavy machinery damage peat. Drain slowly and only as deep as needed, because over-drained peat shrinks and dries irreversibly.

    Technical detail
    • CIFOR guide (Riau): clear by hand cutting rather than fire or heavy machines.
    • MARDI: rapid or deep initial drainage causes marked shrinkage and subsidence, and over-drying cannot be reversed.
    • A 2022 Malaysian study found peat under pineapple more decomposed than natural peat.
    Regions
    Indonesia (Riau) · Malaysia (Johor)
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Pineapple guide
    • Conventional
    • Soil & nutrition
    • Stage: Vegetative growth

    Basal manure and split fertilizer, with copper on peat

    Pineapple needs regular nitrogen and potassium. On peat, copper and zinc are often short.

    Technical detail
    • Kerala: 25 t/ha compost or manure basal, all phosphorus at planting, and N and K split through the crop.
    • CIFOR peat guide: about 10 t manure per hectare, then urea with copper sulfate at 2 to 3 months and again at 5 to 6 months.
    • MARDI reports zinc and copper deficiency in pineapple on Malaysian peat. Guam stops feeding at flowering. These are rates from single guides; adjust to a soil test.
    Regions
    Indonesia (Riau) · Malaysia · India (Kerala)
    Confidence
    High confidence: several institutional sources agree
    Sources
    Crop
    Pineapple guide
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